By Joanna Bath

PhD Dissertation, Newcastle University, 2001

Abstract: This thesis focuses on the violent actions, illegal and semi-legal, of the men and women of north eastern England in the period c. 1650 to 1720. The north east in this period was poised between a violent reiving past and the more cultured, “civilised” society of the later eighteenth century. This makes it a fascinating period for a study of violence, in its own right and as an index of wider social and individual tensions. Both qualitative and quantitative methodology have been employed to facilitate a greater understanding not only of the bare facts of violent acts, but also their contexts and the meanings they held to those involved.

The main sources for this study are legal depositions, from the courts of Durham, Newcastle, Berwick, Northumberland, and the northern circuit assizes; these have been supplemented with other material where possible. Major themes which are drawn from the material include the ways in which ideas of honour functioned to both provoke and constrain assault, the relationship between assault and legitimate forms of violence, and the nature of gender difference in the context of violent activity. By exposition of the wide range of motives which led to violence, this thesis also argues against the stereotypical perception of early modern man as prone to meaningless aggression.

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By Jacob Franz Field

PhD Dissertation, Newcastle University, 2008

Abstract: The Great Fire is an iconic moment in the history of London. It took place in the context of the Restoration, and had major value for any political group that wished to use it. London was the political, social, cultural and economic centre of England, so the Fire had the potential to seriously disrupt the nation. This thesis has shown that the Fire was a disaster for the Londoners it directly affected. However, it was not a disaster in the long-term.

This thesis, using Hearth Tax assessments and records of the Merchant Taylors’ Company and London’s booksellers, has shown the essentially stable nature of London’s demography, society and economy. The Fire only devastated the City – an area that was declining in its importance in the overall structure of the metropolis. The Fire had the effect of speeding population growth outside of the Walls, but this was an ongoing trend in 1666. This thesis has examined the nationwide response to the Fire, with charitable contributions for London coming from across England, for both `distressed’ Londoners and the rebuilding of St Paul’s Cathedral. Urban areas and the South-East tended to be the most generous. The distribution of the donations to Londoners after the Fire was along existing charitable lines – concentrating mostly on widows and other ‘deserving’ poor.

The long-term impact of the Fire lay in its polemic value. Interpretation of the Fire was highly contested, appearing in all forms of media, and used across the political spectrum – from nonconformists to Anglican Royalists. At key `moments’, the memory of the Fire was used – in particular during the Exclusion Crisis. The example of the Fire was utilised by all religious groups, especially to remind of the consequences of divine wrath. This thesis has shown that ultimately, London was resilient to the damage caused by the Great Fire.

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The site at the junction of Kent Street and Fawcett Street, on which a medieval church was once housed, was the final resting place of 113 members of Oliver Cromwell’s Parliamentary force who fought during the gruelling Civil War siege of the city more than 350 years ago.

And the team which found the ten mass graves where the 11th century church of All Saints’ in Fishergate used to stand have now told the story of how they discovered the warriors, stripped of all their clothing and possessions.

In a report by archaeological experts Lauren McIntyre and Graham Bruce in the latest edition of Current Archaeology magazine, they revealed the 2007 dig concluded the soldiers were not killed fighting, but probably by disease, and that they never expected to make such a find.

Click here to read the full article Disease killed soldiers from Oliver Cromwell’s army discovered in Fishergate from the York Press

See also the article ‘Grave reveals grim lives of Cromwell’s men’ from The Independent

See also the article ‘Oliver’s lost army: Buried side by side, the Roundheads who fell victim to a terrible siege’ from the Daily Mail

The Charing Cross was built as a replacement for the medieval cross erected by Edward I in memory of his beloved wife Queen Eleanor of Castile. The original was the final of twelve crosses built to mark the Queen’s funeral procession to Westminster Abbey and soon became the official epicentre of London, the point from which distances to and from the city were measured. Destroyed during the Civil War, the ornate Victorian replica, designed by EM Barry – also the architect of the Charing Cross hotel – is therefore located close to the site of the original.

Timothy Jones, English Heritage team leader for Westminster and West London, said: “Monuments such as the Charing Cross are a hugely important component of London’s heritage – an invaluable part of the city’s personality and interest – which allow visitors and Londoners alike a glimpse into the capital’s long, complex and fascinating history. Although not one of the original crosses created by Edward l for his beloved wife, Eleanor of Castile, this Victorian recreation is a fine example of architect EM Barry’s work, and we are delighted to see it so beautifully and carefully restored, and happily, it can now be removed from our Heritage at Risk Register.”

Robert Thornton, Network Rail’s principal architect, said: “London is a railway city. Since it arrived in the capital in 1836, communities and businesses have relied on rail to go about their daily lives and support the economy, which remains the case today. The Eleanor Cross represents part of London’s railway history, is a well-established landmark in the West End and something that should be preserved for future generations of residents and visitors.”

Adrian Paye, chief executive of specialist stone contractors PAYE, who executed the works, added: “It has been a pleasure to work on a structure of such high quality craftsmanship, and we are grateful that Network Rail gave us this opportunity. The skills needed to carry out intricate carved work to this standard are still available, but it is only through the continued training provided by institutions such as the City and Guilds of London Art School, where many of the masons trained, together with the support of clients committed to quality that this can be carried forward into the future.”

Source: English Heritage

Presentation by Dr. Glenn Richardson, Senior Lecturer, St. Mary’s University College, for The History Faculty
January 2010

Listen to the Podcast:

Watch the video on MeFeedia

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Please note that the presentation does not start until about 40 seconds into the video/audio file

By Daniel Edward Atkinson

PhD Dissertation, University of St. Andrews, 2007

Abstract: This work presents a study of shipbuilding and timber management in the Royal Dockyards in the period 1750 – 1850, focusing on an archaeological investigation of ship timber marks. The first chapter outlines the concept of timber marking in shipbuilding contexts, stressing the multi-disciplinary approach to the study highlighted in the available archaeological and documentary evidence by which the practice of timber marking can be understood.

Chapter two outlines the background to timber marking in the Georgian era and the development of the practice within the broader advances made in shipbuilding, technology and design prior to the end of the 17th century. Chapter three outlines the developments in shipbuilding and the introduction of systems to control and standardise the management of timber in the Royal Dockyards in the 18th century. In the latter half of the 18th century we will see the attempts of naval reformers to develop these systems of timber management and pave the way for the sweeping changes made at the beginning of the 19th century.

Chapter four highlights these changes with the introduction of the Timber Masters and looks at the nature of timber management and the marking of timbers as identified in documentary sources. This evidence lays the foundation for the understanding of timber marking in the 19th century as witnessed in the archaeological record.

The remaining chapters present the much more extensive archaeological evidence for timber marking among several high profile assemblages. The main assemblages presented in Chapters 5 to 9 show the diversity of timber marking practices and how they relate to the working processes of the Royal Dockyards. The research offers new insights into the understanding of shipbuilding and the management of timber in the Royal Dockyards between 1750 and 1850 and explores the possibilities for further avenues of study.

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Produced in England in the late fifteenth century, the prayer roll consists of four parchment strips sewn end to end and measures some four metres long when fully unrolled. The roll contains thirteen illuminations – images of Christ, focusing on the Passion, its Instruments and the Sacred Blood, as well as depictions of various saints and their martyrdoms. Accompanying these is a two-column text, with prayers in Latin and rubrics (religious instructions) in English. The rubrics promise that the recital of certain of the prayers will offer safety from physical danger, sickness or disease; others will shorten, by specified amounts, the agony of Purgatory, while the placing of the roll on the belly of a woman in labour will ensure a safe childbirth.

The prayer roll was once owned and used by Prince Henry (later Henry VIII), as evidenced by the inclusion of Henry’s royal badges at the head of the roll. These include two Tudor roses, the Prince of Wales crowned ostrich feather, as well as Katherine of Aragon’s emblem of a sheaf of arrows. At some point prior to 1509 Henry presented the roll to William Thomas, a Gentleman of his Privy Chamber, and added an inscription at the top of the second membrane, under the central image of Christ’s Passion: ‘Wylliam thomas I pray yow pray for me your lovyng master Prynce Henry’.

The prayer roll provides unique evidence of Henry VIII’s early religious beliefs. It demonstrates that, as a young man, Henry practised the devotions characteristic of the late medieval popular piety that just twenty-five years later he would destroy as the Reformation King.

Tudor historian, Dr. David Starkey commented, “The prayer roll is the most important piece of evidence about Henry’s deeply conservative religious practices as a young man. I am delighted that the British Library, custodian of Henry VIII’s library, has acquired the roll”.

Dr. Andrea Clarke, Curator of Early Modern Historical Manuscripts at the British Library, said, “Henry VIII’s prayer roll wasn’t discovered until 1858 and it has yet to surrender all of its secrets. There are still many unanswered questions about its origin, commission, place of production and illumination. I hope that art historians and researchers with an interest in the history of pre-Reformation popular devotion and piety will be able to get to the bottom of this royal enigma at the British Library.”

Prayer rolls are most commonly associated with pre-Reformation England. Almost all of them contain textual and visual imagery relating to the devotions of the Wounds of Christ. Prayer rolls can take the form of Arma Christi rolls, so called after a poem on the Arms of the Passion; rolls focusing on the Measurement of Christ, the length of the nails with which he was fastened to the cross and the size of his side wound; and rolls with various prayers to the Five Wounds of Christ and other related devotions. Henry VIII’s prayer roll belongs to this last category.

The British Library purchased Henry VIII’s prayer roll from Sotheby’s for £485,000. This acquisition complements the British Library’s existing collections of Henry VIII’s library which forms a key part of the Library’s Royal Collection. The prayer roll is now on display in the Sir John Ritblat Gallery of the British Library.

Source: British Library

Joan Symons, Cornwall Council cabinet member for culture and museums, said, “I am delighted that this important collection, which covers over 500 years of Cornish history, has been saved for future generations to learn from and enjoy. The wonderful news that the Heritage Lottery Fund has approved the grant means that the Cornwall Record Office can organise a whole raft of community based activities to promote the collection. Local museums have already been involved in developing projects and we will work with volunteers, schools and groups to research and celebrate the stories in the collection.”

The Enys family were prominent landowners, industrialists and collectors and the archive includes a wealth of information on the people living and working on the family’s extensive land holdings across Cornwall.

Simon Timms, Chair of Heritage Lottery Fund South West committee, said, “The Enys collection is a treasure-trove of information on 500 years of Cornish life. Alongside funding the acquisition of the collection, this grant will create new opportunities for local people to access the archive, and learn about their heritage. We at HLF are proud to play a part in ensuring that the Enys Collection stays in Cornwall, remains in the public domain and can be preserved for, and explored by, many generations to come.”

Deborah Tritton, Cornwall Council’s Historic Collections Manager said, “This is a hugely important collection. The records of the Enys family have been in the care of Cornwall Record Office for over 30 years and are popular sources for a wide range of research interests – from family and local history to mining and Cornish language studies. We are looking forward to getting out there and involving local communities initially in the Penryn and St Agnes areas – places which feature strongly in the collection.”

The collection also contains documents detailing the family’s involvement in the mining and international trade, as well as the records of other Cornish families and notables which have national and international appeal.

Source: Heritage Lottery Fund

Justices of the Peace in Mid-Tudor Devon Circa 1538-1570

By Rebecca Jane Zmarzly

Master’s Thesis, Texas State University (2007)

Introduction: The mid-Tudor era of English history is characterized by larger than life monarchs, political changes, religious disputes and a move away from a medieval form of government. Early modern historians have long questioned the relationships between these political upheavals in order to determine not only what happened during this time, but also how and why it happened. Historians pose these types of questions for many fields of study; Tudor England is no different. But what makes the various aspects of Henrician, Edwardian, Marian and Elizabethan studies differ from those in other areas is that the Tudor scholar cannot escape one undeniable fact: changes during the Tudor regime impacted English history for centuries to come, right up to contemporary events today. Without the modifications the Tudor monarchs made to the English condition, modern forms of government, politics, administration, literature, philosophy, and culture might have been irrevocably altered.

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Bearded Women in Early Modern England

By Mark Albert Johnston

Studies in English Literature, Vol.47:1 (2007)

Introduction: “An old man, whose beard was all ouer-growne with gray haires, ask’d a Foole how he might do to become yong again: The Fool answered: Goe to the Barber: But how if that will not serue (said the old man) how then? The Foole reply’d: Then bind your selfe Prentise to some body for a 100. years.”

As this passage from Anthony Copley’s late-sixteenth-century collection of witticisms succinctly demonstrates, there was a pervasive association between male beard growth and economic social status in early modern England. The old man in Copley’s anecdote who asks a fool how to attain youth is told that he should either visit the barber, ostensibly in order to have his beard removed, or else bind himself apprentice to a master in perpetuity; according to the fool’s rhetoric, the two acts are equivalent. In sixteenth- and seventeenth-century London, in fact, the one signaled the other: the presence of a beard advertised the completion of apprenticeship and the acquisition of freeman status. So, the fool’s logic correctly assumes that maturity and youth are primarily economic constructions that are constituted by the (regulated) presence or absence of facial hair.

Furthermore, since English boys who had not yet completed the terms of their apprenticeships were not permitted to marry, the presence of a beard heralded both the socioeconomic and sexual viability of its host to the early modern English imagination, mapping sexual prerogative over economic privilege.

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